The roles of writing knowledge, motivation, strategic behaviors, and skills in predicting elementary students’ persuasive writing from source material

Journal article

Wijekumar, Kay, Graham, Steve, Harris, Karen R., Lei, Pui-Wa, Barkel, Ashley, Aitken, Angelique, Ray, Amber B. and Houston, Julia D.. (2019). The roles of writing knowledge, motivation, strategic behaviors, and skills in predicting elementary students’ persuasive writing from source material. Reading and Writing. 32(6), pp. 1431 - 1457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9836-7
AuthorsWijekumar, Kay, Graham, Steve, Harris, Karen R., Lei, Pui-Wa, Barkel, Ashley, Aitken, Angelique, Ray, Amber B. and Houston, Julia D.
Abstract

A core tenet of the model of domain learning is that learning is shaped by cognitive and motivational forces. In writing, these catalysts include learners’ knowledge, motivation, strategic behaviors, and skills. This study tested this proposition at two time points (Fall and Spring) with 179 fifth-grade students (52% were girls), examining if writing knowledge, motivation, strategic behavior, and skills each made a statistically significant and unique contribution to predicting writing quality and output on social studies persuasive writing tasks, after variance due to the other catalysts and reading comprehension were first controlled. Three of the four catalysts (writing knowledge, strategic behaviors, and skills) each accounted for statistically significant and unique variance in predicting writing quality, number of words, or both at each assessment point. These findings provided partial support for the model of domain learning as applied to writing.

Keywordswriting; persuasive writing; model of domain learning
Year2019
JournalReading and Writing
Journal citation32 (6), pp. 1431 - 1457
PublisherSpringer Netherlands
ISSN0922-4777
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9836-7
Scopus EID2-s2.0-85042585662
Page range1431 - 1457
Research GroupInstitute for Learning Sciences and Teacher Education (ILSTE)
Publisher's version
File Access Level
Controlled
Place of publicationNetherlands
EditorsR. M. Joshi
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Brindle, Mary, Graham, Steve, Harris, Karen and Hebert, Michael. (2016). Third and fourth grade teacher's classroom practices in writing: A national survey. Reading and Writing. 29(5), pp. 929 - 954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9604-x
The writing performance of elementary students receiving strategic and interactive writing instruction
Wolbers, Kimberly A., Dostal, Hannah M., Graham, Steve, Cihak, David, Kilpatrick, Jennifer R. and Saulsburry, Rachel. (2015). The writing performance of elementary students receiving strategic and interactive writing instruction. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. 20(4), pp. 385 - 398. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/env022
Research-based writing practices and the Common Core : Meta-analysis and meta-synthesis
Graham, Steve, Harris, Karen and Santangelo, Tanya. (2015). Research-based writing practices and the Common Core : Meta-analysis and meta-synthesis. The Elementary School Journal (print). 115(4), pp. 498 - 522. https://doi.org/10.1086/681964
Practice-based professional development and Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Tier 2, at-risk writers in second grade
Harris, Karen, Graham, Steve and Adkins, Mary. (2015). Practice-based professional development and Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Tier 2, at-risk writers in second grade. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 40, pp. 5 - 16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.02.003
Formative assessment and writing: A meta-analysis
Graham, Steve, Hebert, Michael and Harris, Karen. (2015). Formative assessment and writing: A meta-analysis. The Elementary School Journal (print). 115(4), pp. 523 - 547. https://doi.org/10.1086/681947
The relationship of discourse and topic knowledge to fifth graders' writing performance
Olinghouse, Natalie, Graham, Steve and Gillespie, Amy. (2015). The relationship of discourse and topic knowledge to fifth graders' writing performance. Journal of Educational Psychology. 107(2), pp. 391 - 406. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037549
Professional development in Self-Regulated Strategy Development : Effects on the writing performance of eighth grade Portuguese students
Festas, Isabel, Oliveira, Albertina, Rebelo, Jose, Damiao, Maria, Harris, Karen and Graham, Steve. (2015). Professional development in Self-Regulated Strategy Development : Effects on the writing performance of eighth grade Portuguese students. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 40, pp. 17 - 27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.05.004
Does spelling instruction make students better spellers, readers, and writers? A meta-analytic review
Graham, Steve and Santangelo, Tanya. (2014). Does spelling instruction make students better spellers, readers, and writers? A meta-analytic review. Reading and Writing. 27(9), pp. 1703 - 1743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-014-9517-0
Lessons learned from implementing self-regulated strategy development with students with emotional and behavioral disorders in alternative educational settings
Parks Ennis, Robin, Harris, Karen, Lane, Kathleen Lynne and Mason, Linda H.. (2014). Lessons learned from implementing self-regulated strategy development with students with emotional and behavioral disorders in alternative educational settings. Behavioral Disorders. 40(1), pp. 68 - 77. https://doi.org/10.17988/0198-7429-40.1.68
Informing understanding of young students' writing challenges and opportunities: Insights from the development of a digital writing tool that supports students with learning disabilities
Vue, Ge, Hall, Tracey E., Robinson, Kristin, Ganley, Patricia, Elizalde, Emma and Graham, Steve. (2014). Informing understanding of young students' writing challenges and opportunities: Insights from the development of a digital writing tool that supports students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly. 39(2), pp. 83 - 94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948715604571
Exploring interactive writing as an effective practice for increasing head start students' alphabet knowledge skills
Hall, Anna H., Toland, Michael D., Grisham-Brown, Jennifer and Graham, Steve. (2014). Exploring interactive writing as an effective practice for increasing head start students' alphabet knowledge skills. Early Childhood Education Journal. 42(6), pp. 423 - 430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-013-0594-5
The use of multiple forms of assessment in the service of writing
Graham, Steve. (2014). The use of multiple forms of assessment in the service of writing. Literacy Research and Instruction. 53(2), pp. 96 - 100. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2014.868249
Teaching writing to middle school students: A national survey
Graham, Steve, Capizzi, Andrea, Harris, Karen, Hebert, Michael and Morphy, Paul. (2014). Teaching writing to middle school students: A national survey. Reading and Writing. 27(6), pp. 1015 - 1042. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9495-7
Conducting high quality writing intervention research: Twelve recommendations
Graham, Steve and Harris, Karen. (2014). Conducting high quality writing intervention research: Twelve recommendations. Journal of Writing Research. 6(2), pp. 89 - 123. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2014.06.02.1
A meta-analysis of writing interventions for students with learning disabilities
Gillespie, Amy and Graham, Steve. (2014). A meta-analysis of writing interventions for students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children. 80(4), pp. 454 - 473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914527238
Writing : importance, development, and instruction
Graham, Steve, Gillespie, Amy and McKeown, Debra. (2013). Writing : importance, development, and instruction. Reading and Writing: An interdisciplinary journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9395-2
Comparing effects of different writing activities on reading comprehension : a meta-analysis
Hebert, Michael, Gillespie, Amy and Graham, Steve. (2013). Comparing effects of different writing activities on reading comprehension : a meta-analysis. Reading and Writing: An interdisciplinary journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9386-3
Fifth-grade students' knowledge about writing process and writing genres
Gillespie, Amy, Olinghouse, Natalie G. and Graham, Steve. (2013). Fifth-grade students' knowledge about writing process and writing genres. Elementary School Journal. 113(4), pp. 565 - 588. https://doi.org/10.1086/669938
High school teachers use of writing to support students' learning: a national survey
Gillespie, Amy, Graham, Steve, Kiuhara, Sharlene and Hebert, Michael. (2013). High school teachers use of writing to support students' learning: a national survey. Reading and Writing. 27(6), pp. 1043 - 1072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9494-8
Self-regulated strategies development in writing: Development, implementation and scaling up
Harris, Karen, Graham, Steve and Santangelo, Tanya. (2013). Self-regulated strategies development in writing: Development, implementation and scaling up. In In H. Bembenutty, T. J. Cleary and A. Kitsantas (Ed.). Applications of Self-Regulated Learning across Diverse Disciplines: A Tribute to Barry J. Zimmerman pp. 59 - 87 Information Age Publishing.
The writing of students with learning disabilities, meta-analysis of self-regulated strategy development writing intervention studies, and future directions
Graham, Steve, Harris, Karen and McKeown, Debra. (2013). The writing of students with learning disabilities, meta-analysis of self-regulated strategy development writing intervention studies, and future directions. In In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris and S. Graham (Ed.). Handbook of learning disabilities pp. 405 - 438 The Guilford Press.
Writing Standards
Graham, Steve. (2013). Writing Standards. In Teaching with the Common Core Standards for English Language Arts: What Educators Need to Know pp. 88 - 106 Guilford Press.
How Do you Write?: Writing for Young Children
Graham, Steve and Harris, Karen. (2013). How Do you Write?: Writing for Young Children. In Handbook of Research-Based Practice in Early Education pp. 380 - 394 Guilford Press.
Writing Instruction
MacArthur, Charles A., Philippakos, Zoi, Graham, Steve and Harris, Karen. (2012). Writing Instruction. In Learning about Learning Disabilities pp. 243 - 270 Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-388409-1.00009-6
Word processing programs and weaker writers/readers: a meta-analysis of research findings
Morphy, Paul and Graham, Steve. (2012). Word processing programs and weaker writers/readers: a meta-analysis of research findings. Reading and Writing: An interdisciplinary journal. 25(3), pp. 641 - 678.
A Meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades
Graham, Steve, McKeown, Debra, Kiuhara, Sharlene and Harris, Karen. (2012). A Meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology. 104(4), pp. 879 - 896. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029185
Are attitudes toward writing and reading separable constructs? : a study with primary grade children
Graham, Steve, Berninger, Virginia and Abbott, Robert. (2012). Are attitudes toward writing and reading separable constructs? : a study with primary grade children. Reading and Writing Quarterly. 28(1), pp. 51 - 69. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2012.632732
The Effectiveness of Teaching 10th-Grade Students STOP, AIMS, and DARE for Planning and Drafting Persuasive Text
Kiuhara, Sharlene, O'Neill, Robert, Hawken, Leanne and Graham, Steve. (2012). The Effectiveness of Teaching 10th-Grade Students STOP, AIMS, and DARE for Planning and Drafting Persuasive Text. Exceptional Children. 78(3), pp. 335 - 355.
Strategies for improving student outcomes in written expression
Mason, Linda H., Harris, Karen and Graham, Steve. (2012). Strategies for improving student outcomes in written expression. In Research-Based Strategies For Improving Outcomes in Academics pp. 83 - 94 Pearson Education.
Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers
Graham, Steve, Bollinger, Alisha, Olson, Carol Booth, D'Aoust, Catherine, MacArthur, Charles, McCutchen, Deborah and Olinghouse, Natalie. (2012). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers United States of America: Institute of Education Sciences.
The role of strategies, knowledge, will, and skills in a 30 year program of research (with homage to Hayes, Fayol, and Boscolo)
Graham, Steve and Harris, Karen. (2012). The role of strategies, knowledge, will, and skills in a 30 year program of research (with homage to Hayes, Fayol, and Boscolo). In In V. W. Berninger (Ed.). Past, Present, and Future Contributions of Cognitive Writing Research to Cognitive Psychology pp. 177 - 196 Psychology Press.
Practice-Based Professional Development for Self-Regulated Strategies Development in Writing: A Randomized Controlled Study
Harris, Karen, Lane, Kathleen, Graham, Steve, Driscoll, Steven, Sandmel, Karin, Brindle, Mary and Schatschneider, Chris. (2012). Practice-Based Professional Development for Self-Regulated Strategies Development in Writing: A Randomized Controlled Study. Journal of Teacher Education: the journal of policy, practice, and research in teacher education. 63(2), pp. 103 - 119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487111429005
Tier 1, Teacher Implemented self-regulated stratergy development for students with and without behavioural challenges: A randomized controlled Trial
Harris, Karen, Lane, Kathleen, Driscoll, Steven, Graham, Steve, Wilson, Kristen, Sandmel, Karin, Brindle, Mary and Schatschneider, Chris. (2012). Tier 1, Teacher Implemented self-regulated stratergy development for students with and without behavioural challenges: A randomized controlled Trial. The Elementary School Journal. 113(2), pp. 160 - 191. https://doi.org/10.1086/667403
Writing Difficulties
Graham, Steve and Harris, Karen. (2011). Writing Difficulties. In In Anne McGill-Franzen and Richard L. Allington (Ed.). Handbook of Reading Disability Research pp. 232 - 241 Routledge.
Self-regulated strategy development at Tier 2 for second-grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties :A randomized controlled trial
Lane, Kathleen, Harris, Karen, Graham, Steve, Driscoll, Steven, Sandmel, Karin, Morphy, Paul, Hebert, Michael, House, Emily and Schatschneider, Christopher. (2011). Self-regulated strategy development at Tier 2 for second-grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties :A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness. 4(4), pp. 322 - 353. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2011.558987
Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Students With Writing Difficulties
Mason, Linda, Harris, Karen and Graham, Steve. (2011). Self-Regulated Strategy Development for Students With Writing Difficulties. Theory into Practice. 50(1), pp. 20 - 27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2011.534922
Throw 'em Out or Make 'em Better? State and District High-Stakes Writing Assessments
Graham, Steve, Hebert, Michael and Harris, Karen. (2011). Throw 'em Out or Make 'em Better? State and District High-Stakes Writing Assessments. Focus on Exceptional Children. 44(1), pp. 1 - 12.
The Process Writing Approach :a meta-analysis
Sandmel, Karin and Graham, Steve. (2011). The Process Writing Approach :a meta-analysis. The Journal of Educational Research. 104(6), pp. 396 - 407. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2010.488703
Success and failure with tier-2 SRSD for timed-writing tests among second through fifth-grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties :implications for evidence-based practice
Sandmel, Karin, Wilson, Kristen D., Harris, Karen, Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Graham, Steve, Oakes, Wendy P., Kiuhara, Sharlene A. and Steinbrecher, Trish D.. (2011). Success and failure with tier-2 SRSD for timed-writing tests among second through fifth-grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties :implications for evidence-based practice. Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities. 24, pp. 251 - 293. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0735-004X(2011)0000024012
Success and failure with Tier 2 SRSD for timed writing tests among 2nd and 5th grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties: Implications for evidence-based practices
Sandmel, Karin, Wilson, Kristen D., Harris, Karen, Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Graham, Steve, Oakes, Wendy P., Kiuhara, Sharlene A. and Steinbrecher, Trish D.. (2011). Success and failure with Tier 2 SRSD for timed writing tests among 2nd and 5th grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties: Implications for evidence-based practices. In In T. E. Scruggs and M. A. Mastropieri (Ed.). Assessment and intervention pp. 251 - 294 Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Writing to Read :a meta-analysis of the impact of writing and writing instruction on reading
Graham, Steve and Hebert, Michael. (2011). Writing to Read :a meta-analysis of the impact of writing and writing instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review. 81(4), pp. 710 - 744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2009.09.006
Informing Writing: The Benefits of Formative Assessment - A report from Carnegie Corporation of New York
Graham, Steve, Harris, Karen and Hebert, Michael. (2011). Informing Writing: The Benefits of Formative Assessment - A report from Carnegie Corporation of New York Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Teaching writing strategies in the classroom
Graham, Steve. (2011). Teaching writing strategies in the classroom. In In J. Richards and C. Lasssonde (Ed.). Writing strategies for all primary students: Scaffolding independent writing with differentiated mini-lessons, grades K-3 Jossey-Bass.
Writing to read: evidence for how writing can improve reading: a report from Carnegie Corporation of New York
Graham, Steve and Hebert, Michael. (2010). Writing to read: evidence for how writing can improve reading: a report from Carnegie Corporation of New York New York, USA: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Self-Regulated Strategies Development for Persuasive Writing in Tandem With Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Support : Effects for Second-Grade Students With Behavioral and Writing Difficulties
Little, M, Lane, Kathleen, Harris, Karen, Graham, Steve, Story, Mary and Sandmel, Karin. (2010). Self-Regulated Strategies Development for Persuasive Writing in Tandem With Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Support : Effects for Second-Grade Students With Behavioral and Writing Difficulties. Behavioral Disorders. 35(2), pp. 157 - 179.
Teaching writing to elementary students in grades 4-6: A national survey
Gilbert, Jennifer and Graham, Steve. (2010). Teaching writing to elementary students in grades 4-6: A national survey. The Elementary School Journal. 110(4), pp. 494 - 518. https://doi.org/10.1086/651193
Writing to Read :Evidence for How Writing Can Improve Reading - A Report from Carnegie Corporation of New York
Graham, Steve and Hebert, Michael. (2010). Writing to Read :Evidence for How Writing Can Improve Reading - A Report from Carnegie Corporation of New York United States of America: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Evidence-based writing practices for Tiers 1, 2, and 3
Olinghouse, Natalie G., Graham, Steve and Harris, Karen. (2010). Evidence-based writing practices for Tiers 1, 2, and 3. In Interventions for achievement and behavior in a three-tier model including RTI pp. 553 - 570 National Association of School Psychologists.
Story writing: The effects of self-regulated strategy development for second-grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties
Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Graham, Steve, Harris, Karen, Little, M. Annette, Sandmel, Karin and Brindle, Mary. (2010). Story writing: The effects of self-regulated strategy development for second-grade students with writing and behavioral difficulties. The Journal of Special Education. 44(2), pp. 107 - 128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466908331044
Metacognition and strategies instruction in writing
Harris, Karen, Santangelo, Tanya and Graham, Steve. (2010). Metacognition and strategies instruction in writing. In In H S Waters and W Schneider (Ed.). pp. 226 - 256 Guilford.
With a little help from my friends (and Mark Twain too): Musings and farewells
Graham, Steve. (2010). With a little help from my friends (and Mark Twain too): Musings and farewells. Exceptional Children. 76(4), pp. 389 - 393. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291007600401
Writing to Read :Evidence for How Writing Can Improve Reading - A Report from Carnegie Corporation of New York
Graham, Steve and Hebert, Michael. (2010). Writing to Read :Evidence for How Writing Can Improve Reading - A Report from Carnegie Corporation of New York United States of America: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Self-Regulated Strategy Development in Writing: Premises, Evolution and the Future
Harris, Karen and Graham, Steve. (2009). Self-Regulated Strategy Development in Writing: Premises, Evolution and the Future. British Journal of Educational Psychology.
Teaching writing to high school students: A national survey
Kiuhara, Sharlene, Graham, Steve and Hawken, Leanne S.. (2009). Teaching writing to high school students: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology. 101(1), pp. 136 - 160. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013097
Almost 30 years of writing research: Making sense of it all with The Wrath of Khan
Graham, Steve and Harris, Karen. (2009). Almost 30 years of writing research: Making sense of it all with The Wrath of Khan. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice. 24(2), pp. 58 - 68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.01277.x
The relationship between the discourse knowledge and the writing performance of elementary-grade students
Olinghouse, Natalie G. and Graham, Steve. (2009). The relationship between the discourse knowledge and the writing performance of elementary-grade students. Journal of Educational Psychology. 101(1), pp. 37 - 50. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013462
Teaching composing to students with learning disabilities: Scientifically supported recommendations
Graham, Steve, Olinghouse, Natalie G. and Harris, Karen R.. (2009). Teaching composing to students with learning disabilities: Scientifically supported recommendations. In In Gary A. Troia (Ed.). Instruction and assessment for struggling writers: Evidence-based practices pp. 165 - 186 Guilford Press.
Teaching young students strategies for planning and drafting stories: The impact of self-regulated strategy development
Tracy, Brenda, Reid, Robert R. and Graham, Steve. (2009). Teaching young students strategies for planning and drafting stories: The impact of self-regulated strategy development. The Journal of Educational Research. 102(5), pp. 323 - 331. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.102.5.323-332
How do primary grade teachers teach handwriting? A National Survey
Graham, Steve, Harris, Karen, Mason, Linda H. and Fink-Chorzempa, Barbara. (2008). How do primary grade teachers teach handwriting? A National Survey. Reading and Writing.
A meta-analysis of single subject design writing intervention research
Rogers, Leslie Ann and Graham, Steve. (2008). A meta-analysis of single subject design writing intervention research. Journal of Educational Psychology. 100(4), pp. 879 - 906. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.4.879
Self-regulated strategy development in writing: Going beyond NLEs to a more balanced approach
Harris, Karen, Santangelo, Tanya and Graham, Steve. (2008). Self-regulated strategy development in writing: Going beyond NLEs to a more balanced approach. Instructional Science.
Using Self-Regulated Strategy Development to Support Students Who Have 'Trubol GitingThangs Into Werds'
Santangelo, Tanya, Harris, Karen and Graham, Steve. (2008). Using Self-Regulated Strategy Development to Support Students Who Have 'Trubol GitingThangs Into Werds'. Remedial and Special Education.
Research on writing development, practice, instruction, and assessment: introduction to a special issue of reading and writing
Graham, Steve. (2008). Research on writing development, practice, instruction, and assessment: introduction to a special issue of reading and writing. Reading and Writing.
Michael Pressley's Contributions to the History and Future of Strategies Research
Harris, Karen, Alexander, Patricia and Graham, Steve. (2008). Michael Pressley's Contributions to the History and Future of Strategies Research. Educational Psychologist.
In Memory of Michael Pressley: A Role Model for 21st-Century Educational Psychologists
Graham, Steve and Harris, Karen. (2008). In Memory of Michael Pressley: A Role Model for 21st-Century Educational Psychologists. Educational Psychologist.
Writing instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities: Programs of intervention research
Mason, Linda H. and Graham, Steve. (2008). Writing instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities: Programs of intervention research. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice. 23(2), pp. 103 - 112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2008.00268.x
Primary grade writing instruction: A national survey
Cutler, Laura and Graham, Steve. (2008). Primary grade writing instruction: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology. 100(4), pp. 907 - 919. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012656
The effects of self-regulated strategy development on the writing performance of second-grade students with behavioral and writing difficulties
Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Harris, Karen, Graham, Steve and Weisenbach, Jessica L.. (2008). The effects of self-regulated strategy development on the writing performance of second-grade students with behavioral and writing difficulties. The Journal of Special Education.
Teaching spelling in the primary grades: A national survey of instructional practices and adaptations
Graham, Steve, Morphy, Paul, Harris, Karen and Fink-Chorzempa, Barbara. (2008). Teaching spelling in the primary grades: A national survey of instructional practices and adaptations. American Educational Research Journal.