The dynamic experience of taking an examination : Ever changing cortisol and expectancy for success

Journal article

Graham, Matthew C., Husman, Jenefer, Pekrun, Reinhard Herrmann, Villanueva, Idalis and Christensen, Darcie. (2023). The dynamic experience of taking an examination : Ever changing cortisol and expectancy for success. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 93(1), pp. 195-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12521
AuthorsGraham, Matthew C., Husman, Jenefer, Pekrun, Reinhard Herrmann, Villanueva, Idalis and Christensen, Darcie
Abstract

Background: This study examined the relations between students' expectancies for success and a physiological component of test anxiety, salivary cortisol, during an authentic testing setting.
Aims: The aim of the study was to better understand the connection between shifts in students' control appraisals and changes in the physiological component of test anxiety.
Sample: The study comprised 45 undergraduate engineering majors in the United States.
Methods: Survey data concerning students' expectancy for success and saliva samples were taken before, during and after the practice midterm examination prior to their actual in-class examination.
Results: Students' expectancy for success declined during the examination while cortisol levels declined from the beginning to middle of the examination and began to increase again as a function of time. Although students' initial levels of expectancy for success and cortisol were not correlated, there was a negative relation between change in cortisol and change in expectancy for success.
Conclusions: Our study demonstrates a relation between salivary cortisol, a physiological component of test anxiety and students' expectancy for success in an authentic testing context. Most students saw a decrease in cortisol during the examination, suggesting anticipatory anxiety prior to the test and a return to homeostasis as the examination progressed. Some students, however, did not see a declination in cortisol, suggesting they may not have recovered from pre-examination anxiety. The negative relation between change in cortisol and expectancy for success suggests that students who had the greatest decrease in expectancy for success saw the smallest recovery in cortisol.

Keywordscontrol-value theory; cortisol; examination stress
Year01 Jan 2023
JournalBritish Journal of Educational Psychology
Journal citation93 (1), pp. 195-210
PublisherJohn Wiley and Sons Ltd (UK)
ISSN0007-0998
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12521
Web address (URL)https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjep.12521
Research or scholarlyResearch
FunderNational Science Foundation (NSF)
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Output statusPublished
Publication dates
Online23 Apr 2023
Publication process dates
Accepted14 May 2022
Deposited03 Sep 2023
Additional information

Graham, M. C., Husman, J., Pekrun, R., Villanueva, I., & Christensen, D. (2023). The dynamic experience of taking an examination: Ever changing cortisol and expectancy for success. British Journal of Educational Psycholog y, 93(Su p pl . 1), 195– 210. ht t ps://doi .org /10.1111/bjep.12521

© 2022 The British Psychological Society.

Place of publicationUnited Kingdom
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Arens, A. Katrin, Marsh, Herbert W., Pekrun, Reinhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Murayama, Kou and vom Hofe, Rudolf. (2017). Math self-concept, grades, and achievement test scores : Long-term reciprocal effects across five waves and three achievement tracks. Journal of Educational Psychology. 109(5), pp. 621-634. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000163
Why do children worry about their academic achievement? An expectancy-value perspective on elementary students¿ worries about their mathematics and reading performance
Lauermann, Fani, Eccles, J. S. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2017). Why do children worry about their academic achievement? An expectancy-value perspective on elementary students¿ worries about their mathematics and reading performance. ZDM: The International Journal on Mathematics Education. 49(3), pp. 339 - 354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-017-0832-1
Measuring emotions during epistemic activities: the epistemically-related emotion scales
Pekrun, Reinhard, Vogl, Elisabeth, Muis, Krista R. and Sinatra, Gale M.. (2017). Measuring emotions during epistemic activities: the epistemically-related emotion scales. Cognition and Emotion. 31(6), pp. 1268 - 1276. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2016.1204989
Long-term positive effects of repeating a year in school: Six-year longitudinal study of self-beliefs, anxiety, social relations, school grades, and test scores
Marsh, Herbert W., Parker, Philip D., Guo, Jiesi, Dicke, Theresa, Pekrun, Reinhard, Murayama, K. and Lichtenfeld, Stephanie. (2017). Long-term positive effects of repeating a year in school: Six-year longitudinal study of self-beliefs, anxiety, social relations, school grades, and test scores. Journal of Educational Psychology. 109(3), pp. 425 - 438. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000144
Exploring the relations between epistemic beliefs, emotions, and learning from texts
Trevors, Gregory J., Muis, Krista R., Pekrun, Reinhard, Sinatra, Gale M. and Muijselaar, Marloes M. L.. (2017). Exploring the relations between epistemic beliefs, emotions, and learning from texts. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 48, pp. 116 - 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.10.001
Achievement emotions and academic performance : Longitudinal models of reciprocal effects
Pekrun, Reinhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Marsh, Herbert W., Murayama, Kou and Goetz, Thomas. (2017). Achievement emotions and academic performance : Longitudinal models of reciprocal effects. Child Development. 88(5), pp. 1653-1670. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12704
Emotions that matter to achievement : Student feelings about assessment
Vogl, Elisabeth and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Emotions that matter to achievement : Student feelings about assessment. In In Brown, Gavin T. L. and Harris, Lois R. (Ed.). Handbook of human and social conditions in assessment pp. 111-128 Routledge.
To be bored or not to be bored: How task-related boredom influences creative performance
Haager, Julia S., Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). To be bored or not to be bored: How task-related boredom influences creative performance. The Journal of Creative Behavior. 52(4), pp. 297 - 304. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.154
Using self-report to assess emotions in education
Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Using self-report to assess emotions in education. In In Zembylas, Michalinos and Schutz, Paul A. (Ed.). Methodological advances in research on emotion and education pp. 43-54 Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29049-2_4
Measuring teachers' enjoyment, anger, and anxiety: The Teacher Emotions Scales (TES)
Frenzel, Anne C., Pekrun, Reinhard, Goetz, Thomas, Daniels, Lia M., Durksen, Tracy L., Becker-Kurz, Betty and Klassen, Robert M.. (2016). Measuring teachers' enjoyment, anger, and anxiety: The Teacher Emotions Scales (TES). Contemporary Educational Psychology. 46(July), pp. 148 - 163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.05.003
How do you make me feel better? Social cognitive emotion regulation and the default mode network
Xie, Xiyao, Bratec, Satja Mulej, Schmid, Gabriele, Meng, Chun, Doll, Anselm, Wohlschläger, Afra, Finke, Kathrin, Förstl, Hans, Zimmer, Claus, Pekrun, Reinhard, Schilbach, Leonhard, Riedl, Valentin and Sorg, Christian. (2016). How do you make me feel better? Social cognitive emotion regulation and the default mode network. NeuroImage. 134(July), pp. 270 - 280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.04.015
Teachers' emotions and emotion management: integrating emotion regulation theory with emotional labor research
Lee, Mikyoung, Pekrun, Reinhard, Taxer, Jamie L., Schutz, Paul A., Vogl, Elisabeth and Xie, Xiyao. (2016). Teachers' emotions and emotion management: integrating emotion regulation theory with emotional labor research. Social Psychology of Education: an international journal. 19(4), pp. 843 - 863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-016-9359-5
Identity and epistemic emotions during knowledge revision: A potential account for the backfire effect
Trevors, Gregory J., Muis, Krista R., Pekrun, Reinhard, Sinatra, Gale M. and Winne, Philip H.. (2016). Identity and epistemic emotions during knowledge revision: A potential account for the backfire effect. Discourse Processes. 53(5-6), pp. 339 - 370. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2015.1136507
Adaptive motivation and emotion in education: Research and principles for instructional design
Linnenbrink-Garcia, Lisa, Patall, Erika A. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Adaptive motivation and emotion in education: Research and principles for instructional design. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 3(2), pp. 228 - 236. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732216644450
The impact of emotions on student achievement in synchronous hybrid business and public administration programs: A longitudinal test of control-value theory
Butz, Nikolaus T., Stupnisky, Robert H., Pekrun, Reinhard, Jensen, Jason L. and Harsell, Dana M.. (2016). The impact of emotions on student achievement in synchronous hybrid business and public administration programs: A longitudinal test of control-value theory. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education. 14(4), pp. 441 - 474. https://doi.org/10.1111/dsji.12110
Intraindividual relations between achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: An experience sampling approach
Goetz, Thomas, Sticca, Fabio, Pekrun, Reinhard, Murayama, Kou and Elliot, Andrew J.. (2016). Intraindividual relations between achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: An experience sampling approach. Learning and Instruction. 41, pp. 115 - 125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.10.007
Breaking the double-edged sword of effort/trying hard : Developmental equilibrium and longitudinal relations among effort, achievement, and academic self-concept
Marsh, Herbert W., Pekrun, Reinhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Guo, Jisei, Arens, A. Katrin and Murayama, Kou. (2016). Breaking the double-edged sword of effort/trying hard : Developmental equilibrium and longitudinal relations among effort, achievement, and academic self-concept. Developmental Psychology. 52(8), pp. 1273-1290. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000146
New faculty members' emotions: A mixed-method study
Stupnisky, Robert H., Pekrun, Reinhard and Lichtenfeld, Stephanie. (2016). New faculty members' emotions: A mixed-method study. Studies in Higher Education. 41(7), pp. 1167 - 1188. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.968546
Emotions that matter to achievement: Student feelings about assessment
Vogl, Elisabeth and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Emotions that matter to achievement: Student feelings about assessment. In In G.T.L. Brown and L. R. Harris (Ed.). Handbook of human and social conditions in assessment pp. 111 - 128 Routledge.
Don't aim too high for your kids : Parental overaspiration undermines students' learning in mathematics
Murayama, Kou, Pekrun, Reinhard, Suzuki, Masayuki, Marsh, Herbert W. and Lichtenfeld, Stephanie. (2016). Don't aim too high for your kids : Parental overaspiration undermines students' learning in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 111(5), pp. 766-779. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000079
Academic emotions
Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Academic emotions. In Handbook of motivation at school pp. 120-144 Routledge.
The paradoxical role of perceived control in late life health behavior
Chipperfield, Judith G., Perry, Raymond P., Pekrun, Reinhard, Barchfeld, Petra, Lang, Frieder R. and Hamm, Jeremy M.. (2016). The paradoxical role of perceived control in late life health behavior. PLoS ONE. 11(3), pp. 1 - 16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148921
Affect influences feature binding in memory: Trading between richness and strength of memory representations
Spachtholz, Philipp, Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Affect influences feature binding in memory: Trading between richness and strength of memory representations. Emotion. 16(7), pp. 1067 - 1073. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000199
Students' emotions for achievement and technology use in synchronous hybrid graduate programmes: A control-value approach
Butz, Nikolaus T., Stupnisky, Robert H. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2015). Students' emotions for achievement and technology use in synchronous hybrid graduate programmes: A control-value approach. Research in Learning Technology. 23(1), pp. 1 - 16. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v23.26097
The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire : Validation for pre-adolescent students
Peixoto, Francisco, Mata, Lourdes, Monteiro, Vera, Sanches, Cristina and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2015). The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire : Validation for pre-adolescent students. European Journal of Developmental Psychology. 12(4), pp. 472 - 481. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2015.1040757
Teaching this class drives me nuts! - Examining the person and context specificity of teacher emotions
Frenzel, Anne C., Becker-Kurz, Betty, Pekrun, Reinhard and Goetz, Thomas. (2015). Teaching this class drives me nuts! - Examining the person and context specificity of teacher emotions. PLoS ONE. 10(6), pp. 1 - 15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129630
Differential binding of colors to objects in memory: Red and yellow stick better than blue and green
Kuhbandner, Christof, Spitzer, Bernhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2015). Differential binding of colors to objects in memory: Red and yellow stick better than blue and green. Frontiers in Psychology. 6(231), pp. 1 - 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00231
The curious case of climate change: Testing a theoretical model of epistemic beliefs, epistemic emotions, and complex learning
Muis, Krista R., Pekrun, Reinhard, Sinatra, Gale M., Azevedo, Roger, Trevors, Gregory, Meier, Elisabeth and Heddy, Benjamin C.. (2015). The curious case of climate change: Testing a theoretical model of epistemic beliefs, epistemic emotions, and complex learning. Learning and Instruction. 39, pp. 168 - 183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.06.003
Internal/external frame of reference model
Marsh, Herbert W., Möller, Jens, Parker, Philip, Xu, Man K., Nagengast, Benjamin and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2015). Internal/external frame of reference model. In In J. D. Wright (Ed.). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences pp. 425 - 432 Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.26084-4
Confusion can be beneficial for learning
D'Mello, Sidney, Lehman, Blair, Pekrun, Reinhard and Graesser, Art. (2014). Confusion can be beneficial for learning. Learning and Instruction. 29, pp. 153 - 170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.05.003
Attribution-based treatment interventions in some achievement settings
Perry, Raymond P., Chipperfield, Judith G., Hladkyj, Steve, Pekrun, Reinhard and Hamm, Jeremy M.. (2014). Attribution-based treatment interventions in some achievement settings. Advances in Motivation and Achievement. 18, pp. 1 - 35. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018000
Negative affect improves the quality of memories: Trading capacity for precision in sensory and working memory
Spachtholz, Philipp, Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2014). Negative affect improves the quality of memories: Trading capacity for precision in sensory and working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 143(4), pp. 1450 - 1456. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000012
Using control-value theory to understand achievement emotions in medical education
Artino, Anthony R. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2014). Using control-value theory to understand achievement emotions in medical education. Academic Medicine. 89(12), pp. 1696 - 1696. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000536
Overcoming fixed mindsets: The role of affect
Haager, Julia S., Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2014). Overcoming fixed mindsets: The role of affect. Cognition and Emotion. 28(4), pp. 756 - 767. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.851645
Types of boredom: An experience sampling approach
Goetz, Thomas, Frenzel, Anne C., Hall, Nathan C., Nett, Ulrike E., Pekrun, Reinhard and Lipnevich, Anastasiya A.. (2014). Types of boredom: An experience sampling approach. Motivation and Emotion. 38(3), pp. 401 - 419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-013-9385-y
Memory suppression can help people "unlearn" behavioral responses-but only for nonemotional memories
Sakaki, Michiko, Kuhbandner, Christof, Mather, Mara and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2014). Memory suppression can help people "unlearn" behavioral responses-but only for nonemotional memories. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review. 21(1), pp. 136 - 141. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0480-6
The power of anticipated feedback: Effects on students' achievement goals and achievement emotions
Pekrun, Reinhard, Cusack, Aisling, Murayama, Kou, Elliot, Andrew J. and Thomas, Kevin. (2014). The power of anticipated feedback: Effects on students' achievement goals and achievement emotions. Learning and Instruction. 29(February), pp. 115 - 124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.002
Boredom and academic achievement: Testing a model of reciprocal causation
Pekrun, Reinhard, Hall, Nathan C., Goetz, Thomas and Perry, Raymond P.. (2014). Boredom and academic achievement: Testing a model of reciprocal causation. Journal of Educational Psychology. 106(3), pp. 696 - 710. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036006
The influence of red on impression formation in a job application context
Maier, Markus A., Elliot, Andrew J., Lee, Borah, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Barchfeld, Petra and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2013). The influence of red on impression formation in a job application context. Motivation and Emotion. 37(3), pp. 389 - 401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9326-1
Predicting long-term growth in students' mathematics achievement: The unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies
Murayama, Kou, Pekrun, Reinhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie and vom Hofe, Rudolf. (2013). Predicting long-term growth in students' mathematics achievement: The unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies. Child Development. 84(4), pp. 1475 - 1490. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12036
Do girls really experience more anxiety in mathematics?
Goetz, Thomas, Bieg, Madeleine, Ludtke, Oliver, Pekrun, Reinhard and Hall, Nathan C.. (2013). Do girls really experience more anxiety in mathematics? Psychological Science. 24(10), pp. 2079 - 2087. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613486989
Affective state influences retrieval-induced forgetting for integrated knowledge
Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2013). Affective state influences retrieval-induced forgetting for integrated knowledge. PLoS ONE. 8(2), pp. 1 - 6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056617
Joint effects of emotion and color on memory
Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2013). Joint effects of emotion and color on memory. Emotion. 13(3), pp. 375 - 379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031821
Teaching methods for modelling problems and students' task-specific enjoyment, value, interest and self-efficacy expectations
Schukajlow, Stanislaw, Leiss, Dominik, Pekrun, Reinhard, Blum, Werner, Muller, Marcel and Messner, Rudolf. (2012). Teaching methods for modelling problems and students' task-specific enjoyment, value, interest and self-efficacy expectations. Educational Studies in Mathematics. 79(2), pp. 215 - 237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-011-9341-2
Beyond quantitative decline: Conceptual shifts in adolescents' development of interest in mathematics
Frenzel, Anne C., Pekrun, Reinhard, Dicke, Anna-Lena and Goetz, Thomas. (2012). Beyond quantitative decline: Conceptual shifts in adolescents' development of interest in mathematics. Developmental Psychology. 48(4), pp. 1069 - 1082. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026895
Students' emotions during homework: Structures, self-concept antecedents, and achievement outcomes
Goetz, Thomas, Nett, Ulrike E., Martiny, Sarah E., Hall, Nathan C., Pekrun, Reinhard, Dettmers, Swantje and Trautwein, Ulrich. (2012). Students' emotions during homework: Structures, self-concept antecedents, and achievement outcomes. Learning and Individual Differences. 22(2), pp. 225 - 234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.04.006
Measuring students' emotions in the early years: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire-Elementary School (AEQ-ES)
Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Pekrun, Reinhard, Stupnisky, Robert H., Reiss, Kristina and Murayama, Kou. (2012). Measuring students' emotions in the early years: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire-Elementary School (AEQ-ES). Learning and Individual Differences. 22(2), pp. 190 - 201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.04.009
Fertile green: Green facilitates creative performance
Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Elliot, Andrew J., Maier, Markus A. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2012). Fertile green: Green facilitates creative performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 38(6), pp. 784 - 797. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212436611
Measuring emotions in students' learning and performance: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ)
Pekrun, Reinhard, Goetz, Thomas, Frenzel, Anne C., Barchfeld, Petra and Perry, Raymond P.. (2011). Measuring emotions in students' learning and performance: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ). Contemporary Educational Psychology. 36(1), pp. 36 - 48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.002
Read-out of emotional information from iconic memory: The longevity of threatening stimuli
Kuhbandner, Christof, Spitzer, Bernhard and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Read-out of emotional information from iconic memory: The longevity of threatening stimuli. Psychological Science. 22(5), pp. 695 - 700. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611406445
Students' emotions and academic engagement: Introduction to the special issue
Linnenbrink-Garcia, Lisa and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Students' emotions and academic engagement: Introduction to the special issue. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 36(1), pp. 1 - 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.11.004
Students' emotions during homework in mathematics: Testing a theoretical model of antecedents and achievement outcomes
Dettmers, Swantje, Trautwein, Ulrich, Ludtke, Oliver, Goetz, Thomas, Frenzel, Anne C. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Students' emotions during homework in mathematics: Testing a theoretical model of antecedents and achievement outcomes. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 36(1), pp. 25 - 35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.001
A 3 × 2 achievement goal model
Elliot, Andrew J., Murayama, Kou and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). A 3 × 2 achievement goal model. Journal of Educational Psychology. 103(3), pp. 632 - 648. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023952
Teacher enthusiasm: Dimensionality and context specificity
Kunter, Marieke, Frenzel, Anne C., Nagy, Gabriel, Baumert, Jurgen and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Teacher enthusiasm: Dimensionality and context specificity. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 36(4), pp. 289 - 301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.07.001
Always look on the broad side of life: Happiness increases the breadth of sensory memory
Kuhbandner, Christof, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Always look on the broad side of life: Happiness increases the breadth of sensory memory. Emotion. 11(4), pp. 958 - 964. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024075