The dynamic experience of taking an examination : Ever changing cortisol and expectancy for success

Journal article

Graham, Matthew C., Husman, Jenefer, Pekrun, Reinhard, Villanueva, Idalis and Christensen, Darcie. (2023). The dynamic experience of taking an examination : Ever changing cortisol and expectancy for success. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 93(Suppl. 1), pp. 195-210. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12521

Publication dates
Authors	Graham, Matthew C., Husman, Jenefer, Pekrun, Reinhard, Villanueva, Idalis and Christensen, Darcie
Abstract	Background This study examined the relations between students' expectancies for success and a physiological component of test anxiety, salivary cortisol, during an authentic testing setting. Aims The aim of the study was to better understand the connection between shifts in students' control appraisals and changes in the physiological component of test anxiety. Sample The study comprised 45 undergraduate engineering majors in the United States. Methods Survey data concerning students' expectancy for success and saliva samples were taken before, during and after the practice midterm examination prior to their actual in-class examination. Results Students' expectancy for success declined during the examination while cortisol levels declined from the beginning to middle of the examination and began to increase again as a function of time. Although students' initial levels of expectancy for success and cortisol were not correlated, there was a negative relation between change in cortisol and change in expectancy for success. Conclusions Our study demonstrates a relation between salivary cortisol, a physiological component of test anxiety and students' expectancy for success in an authentic testing context. Most students saw a decrease in cortisol during the examination, suggesting anticipatory anxiety prior to the test and a return to homeostasis as the examination progressed. Some students, however, did not see a declination in cortisol, suggesting they may not have recovered from pre-examination anxiety. The negative relation between change in cortisol and expectancy for success suggests that students who had the greatest decrease in expectancy for success saw the smallest recovery in cortisol.
Keywords	control-value theory; cortisol; examination stress
Year	2023
Journal	British Journal of Educational Psychology
Journal citation	93 (Suppl. 1), pp. 195-210
Publisher	John Wiley & Sons Ltd
ISSN	0007-0998
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)	https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12521
PubMed ID	35676863
Scopus EID	2-s2.0-85131519451
Open access	Published as green open access
Page range	195-210
Funder	National Science Foundation (NSF)
Author's accepted manuscript	AM_Graham_2023_The_dynamic_experience_of_taking_an_exam.pdf License All rights reserved File Access Level Open
Publisher's version	License All rights reserved File Access Level Controlled
Output status	Published
Online	23 Apr 2023
Publication process dates
Accepted	14 May 2022
Deposited	03 Sep 2023
Additional information	© 2022 The British Psychological Society.

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Pekrun, Reinhard Herrmann and Loderer, Kristina. (2020). Emotions and learning from multiple representations and perspectives. In In Van Meter, Peggy, List, Alexandra, Lombardi, Doug and Kendeou, Panayiota (Ed.). Handbook of Learning from Multiple Representations and Perspectives pp. 373 Routledge. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429443961

Commentary : Self-report is indispensable to assess students’ learning

Pekrun, Reinhard. (2020). Commentary : Self-report is indispensable to assess students’ learning. Frontline Learning Research. 8(3), pp. 185-193. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v8i3.637

Psychological comparison processes and self-concept in relation to five distinct frame-of-reference effects : Pan-human cross-cultural generalizability over 68 countries

Marsh, Herbert W., Parker, Philip D., Guo, Jiesi, Pekrun, Reinhard and Basarkod, Geetanjali. (2020). Psychological comparison processes and self-concept in relation to five distinct frame-of-reference effects : Pan-human cross-cultural generalizability over 68 countries. European Journal of Personality. 34(2), pp. 180-202. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2232

Understanding and measuring emotions in technology-rich learning environments

Lajoie, Susanne P., Pekrun, Reinhard, Azevedo, Roger and Leighton, Jacqueline P.. (2020). Understanding and measuring emotions in technology-rich learning environments. Learning and Instruction. 70, p. Article 101272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.101272

Who enjoys teaching, and when? Between- and within-person evidence on teachers’ appraisal-emotion links

Frenzel, Anne C., Fiedler, Daniel, Marx, Anton K. G., Reck, Corinna and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2020). Who enjoys teaching, and when? Between- and within-person evidence on teachers’ appraisal-emotion links. Frontiers in Psychology. 11, p. 1092. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01092

Test anxiety and physiological arousal : A systematic review and meta-analysis

Roos, Anna-Lena, Goetz, Thomas, Voracek, Martin, Krannich, Maike, Bieg, Madeleine, Jarrell, Amanda and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2020). Test anxiety and physiological arousal : A systematic review and meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review. 33(2), pp. 579-618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09543-z

Promotion of mental health in young adults via mobile phone app : Study protocol of the ECoWeB (emotional competence for well-being in Young adults) cohort multiple randomised trials

Newbold, A., Warren, F. C., Taylor, R. S., Hulme, C., Burnett, S., Aas, B., Botella, C., Burkhardt, F., Ehring, T., Fontaine, J. R. J., Frost, M., Garcia-Palacios, A., Greimel, E., Hoessle, C., Hovasapian, A., Huyghe, V. E. I., Lochner, J., Molinari, G., Pekrun, R., ... Watkins, E. R.. (2020). Promotion of mental health in young adults via mobile phone app : Study protocol of the ECoWeB (emotional competence for well-being in Young adults) cohort multiple randomised trials. BMC Psychiatry. 20, p. 458. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02857-w

Excessive boredom among adolescents : A comparison between low and high achievers

Schwartze, Manuel M., Frenzel, Anne C., Goetz, Thomas, Marx, Anton K. G., Reck, Corinna, Pekrun, Reinhard and Fiedler, Daniel. (2020). Excessive boredom among adolescents : A comparison between low and high achievers. PLoS ONE. 15(11), p. e0241671. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241671

Control-value appraisals, achievement emotions, and foreign language performance : A latent interaction analysis

Shao, Kaiqi, Pekrun, Reinhard, Marsh, Herbert W. and Loderer, Kristina. (2020). Control-value appraisals, achievement emotions, and foreign language performance : A latent interaction analysis. Learning and Instruction. 69, p. Article 101356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101356

Are concepts of achievement-related emotions universal across cultures? A semantic profiling approach

Loderer, Kristina, Gentsch, Kornelia, Duffy, Melissa C., Zhu, Mingjing, Xie, Xiyao, Chavarría, Jason A., Vogl, Elisabeth, Soriano, Cristina, Scherer, Klaus R. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2020). Are concepts of achievement-related emotions universal across cultures? A semantic profiling approach. Cognition and Emotion. 34(7), pp. 1480-1488. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2020.1748577

Achievement emotions and academic achievement : Reciprocal relations and the moderating influence of academic buoyancy

Putwain, David W., Wood, Peter and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2020). Achievement emotions and academic achievement : Reciprocal relations and the moderating influence of academic buoyancy. Journal of Educational Psychology. 114(1), pp. 108-126. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000637

Emotions in medical education: Examining the validity of the Medical Emotion Scale (MES) across authentic medical learning environments

Melissa C. Duffy, Susanne P. Lajoie, Reinhard Pekrun and Kevin Lachapelle. (2020). Emotions in medical education: Examining the validity of the Medical Emotion Scale (MES) across authentic medical learning environments. Learning and Instruction. 70, pp. 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.07.001

Beyond cold technology: A systematic review and meta-analysis on emotions in technology-based learning environments

Kristina Loderer, Reinhard Pekrun and James C. Lester. (2020). Beyond cold technology: A systematic review and meta-analysis on emotions in technology-based learning environments. Learning and Instruction. 70(101162), pp. 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.08.002

Surprised-curious-confused : Epistemic emotions and knowledge exploration

Vogl, Elisabeth, Pekrun, Reinhard, Murayama, Kou and Loderer, Kristina. (2020). Surprised-curious-confused : Epistemic emotions and knowledge exploration. Emotion. 20(4), pp. 625-641. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000578

Emotional Foundations of Game-Based Learning

Loderer, Kristina, Pekrun, Reinhard Herrmann and Plass, Jan. (2019). Emotional Foundations of Game-Based Learning. In In Plass, Jan L., Mayer, Richard E. and Homer, Bruce D. (Ed.). Handbook of Game-Based Learning pp. 111 MIT Press.

Achievement emotions : A control-value theory perspective

Pekrun, Reinhard Herrmann. (2019). Achievement emotions : A control-value theory perspective. In In Patulny, Roger, Bellocchi, Alberto, Olson, Rebecca, Khorana, Sukhmani, McKenzie, Jordan and Peterie, Michelle (Ed.). Emotions in Late Modernity pp. 142 Routledge.

The murky distinction between curiosity and interest : State of the art and future prospects

Pekrun, Reinhard. (2019). The murky distinction between curiosity and interest : State of the art and future prospects. Educational Psychology Review. 31(4), pp. 905-914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09512-1

Inquiry on emotions in higher education : Progress and open problems

Pekrun, Reinhard. (2019). Inquiry on emotions in higher education : Progress and open problems. Studies in Higher Education. 44(10), pp. 1806-1811. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1665335

Emotions in classroom language learning: What can we learn from achievement emotion research?

Kaiqi Shao, Reinhard Pekrun and Laura J. Nicholson. (2019). Emotions in classroom language learning: What can we learn from achievement emotion research? System. 86, pp. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102121

The emotions of pretenure faculty: Implications for teaching and research success

Stupnisky, Robert H., Hall, Nathan C. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2019). The emotions of pretenure faculty: Implications for teaching and research success. Review of Higher Education. 42(4), pp. 1489 - 1526. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2019.0073

Exploring the antecedents and consequences of epistemic emotions

Chevrier, Marianne, Muis, Krista R., Trevors, Gregory J., Pekrun, Reinhard and Sinatra, Gale M.. (2019). Exploring the antecedents and consequences of epistemic emotions. Learning and Instruction. 63, pp. 1 - 18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.05.006

Do positive illusions of control foster happiness?

Kaufmann, Martina, Goetz, Thomas, Lipnevich, Anastasiya A. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2019). Do positive illusions of control foster happiness? Emotion. 19(6), pp. 1014 - 1022. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000499

Faculty enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom for teaching and research: instrument development and testing predictors of success

Stupnisky, Robert H., Hall, Nathan C. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2019). Faculty enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom for teaching and research: instrument development and testing predictors of success. Studies in Higher Education. 44(10), pp. 1712 - 1722. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1665308

Emotion regulation in achievement situations: An integrated model

Harley, Jason M., Pekrun, Reinhard, Taxer, Jamie L. and Gross, James J.. (2019). Emotion regulation in achievement situations: An integrated model. Educational Psychologist. 54(2), pp. 106 - 126. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1587297

Relative incidence and origins of achievement emotions in computer-based collaborative problem-solving: A control-value approach

Camacho-Morles, Jesus, Slemp, Gavin R., Oades, Lindsay G., Pekrun, Reinhard and Morrish, Lucy. (2019). Relative incidence and origins of achievement emotions in computer-based collaborative problem-solving: A control-value approach. Computers in Human Behavior. 98, pp. 41 - 49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.035

Happy fish in little ponds: Testing a reference group model of achievement and emotion

Pekrun, Reinhard, Murayama, Kou, Marsh, Herbert W., Goetz, Thomas and Frenzel, Anne C.. (2019). Happy fish in little ponds: Testing a reference group model of achievement and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 117(1), pp. 166 - 185. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000230

Expectancy of success, attainment value, engagement, and Achievement: A moderated mediation analysis

Putwain, David W., Nicholson, Laura J., Pekrun, Reinhard, Becker, Sandra and Symes, Wendy. (2019). Expectancy of success, attainment value, engagement, and Achievement: A moderated mediation analysis. Learning and Instruction. 60, pp. 117 - 125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.11.005

The murky distinction between self-concept and self-efficacy: Beware of lurking jingle-jangle fallacies

Marsh, Herbert W., Pekrun, Reinhard, Parker, Philip D., Murayama, Kou, Guo, Jiesi, Dicke, Theresa and Arens, A. Katrin. (2019). The murky distinction between self-concept and self-efficacy: Beware of lurking jingle-jangle fallacies. Journal of Educational Psychology. 111(2), pp. 331 - 353. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000281

Weiner’s Attribution Theory : Indispensable - But is it immune to crisis?

Pekrun, Reinhard and Marsh, Herbert W.. (2018). Weiner’s Attribution Theory : Indispensable - But is it immune to crisis? Motivation Science. 4(1), pp. 19-20. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000096

An attribution-based motivation treatment for low control students who are bored in online learning environments

Parker, Patti C., Perry, Raymond P., Chipperfield, Judith G., Hamm, Jeremy M. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2018). An attribution-based motivation treatment for low control students who are bored in online learning environments. Motivation Science. 4(2), pp. 177-184. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000081

Effects of achievement contexts on the meaning structure of emotion words

Gentsch, Kornelia, Loderer, Kristina, Soriano, Cristina, Fontaine, Johnny R. J., Eid, Michael, Pekrun, Reinhard and Scherer, Klaus R.. (2018). Effects of achievement contexts on the meaning structure of emotion words. Cognition and Emotion. 32(2), pp. 379 - 388. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1287668

An integrated model of academic self-concept development: academic self-concept, grades, test scores, and tracking over 6 years

Marsh, Herbert W., Pekrun, Reinhard, Murayama, Kou, Arens, A. Katrin, Parker, Philip D., Guo, Jiesi and Dicke, Theresa. (2018). An integrated model of academic self-concept development: academic self-concept, grades, test scores, and tracking over 6 years. Developmental Psychology. 54(2), pp. 263 - 280. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000393

Paradoxical effects of perceived control on survival

Chipperfield, Judith G., Perry, Raymond P., Pekrun, Reinhard, Hamm, Jeremy M. and Lang, Frieder R.. (2018). Paradoxical effects of perceived control on survival. Journal of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 73(7), pp. 1166 - 1174. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx002

Emotion transmission in the classroom revisited: A reciprocal effects model of teacher and student enjoyment

Frenzel, Anne C., Becker-Kurz, Betty, Pekrun, Reinhard, Goetz, Thomas and Lüdtke, Oliver. (2018). Emotion transmission in the classroom revisited: A reciprocal effects model of teacher and student enjoyment. Journal of Educational Psychology. 110(5), pp. 628 - 639. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000228

Main and moderator effects of refutation on task value, epistemic emotions, and learning strategies during conceptual change

Muis, Krista Renee, Sinatra, Gale M., Pekrun, Reinhard, Winne, Philip H., Trevors, Gregory J., Losenno, Kelsey M. and Munzar, Brendan. (2018). Main and moderator effects of refutation on task value, epistemic emotions, and learning strategies during conceptual change. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 55, pp. 155 - 165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.10.001

Reciprocal relations between students' academic enjoyment, boredom, and achievement over time

Putwain, David W., Becker, Sandra, Symes, Wendy and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2018). Reciprocal relations between students' academic enjoyment, boredom, and achievement over time. Learning and Instruction. 54, pp. 73 - 81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.08.004

The Achievement Pride Scales (APS)

Buechner, Vanessa L., Pekrun, Reinhard and Lichtenfeld, Stephanie. (2018). The Achievement Pride Scales (APS). European Journal of Psychological Assessment. 34(3), pp. 181 - 192. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000325

Control-value appraisals, enjoyment, and boredom in mathematics: A longitudinal latent interaction analysis

Putwain, David W., Pekrun, Reinhard, Nicholson, Laura J., Symes, Wendy, Becker, Sandra and Marsh, Herbert W.. (2018). Control-value appraisals, enjoyment, and boredom in mathematics: A longitudinal latent interaction analysis. American Educational Research Journal. 55(6), pp. 1339 - 1368. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218786689

Effects of school-average achievement on individual self-concept and achievement: Unmasking phantom effects masquerading as true compositional effects

Dicke, Theresa, Marsh, Herbert W., Parker, Philip D., Pekrun, Reinhard, Guo, Jiesi and Televantou, Ioulia. (2018). Effects of school-average achievement on individual self-concept and achievement: Unmasking phantom effects masquerading as true compositional effects. Journal of Educational Psychology. 110(8), pp. 1112 - 1126. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000259

Within-person analysis in educational psychology : Importance and illustrations

Murayama, Kou, Goetz, Thomas, Malmberg, Lars-Erik, Pekrun, Reinhard, Tanaka, Ayumi and Martin, Andrew J.. (2017). Within-person analysis in educational psychology : Importance and illustrations. In The role of competence and beliefs in teaching and learning pp. 71-87 The British Psychological Society. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpsmono.2017.cat2023.6

Emotions and motivation in mathematics education: theoretical considerations and empirical contributions

Schukajlow, Stanislaw, Rakoczy, Katrin and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2017). Emotions and motivation in mathematics education: theoretical considerations and empirical contributions. ZDM: The International Journal on Mathematics Education. 49(3), pp. 307 - 322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-017-0864-6

Achievement emotions

Pekrun, Reinhard. (2017). Achievement emotions. In In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck and D. S. Yeager (Ed.). Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application pp. 251 - 271 Guilford Press.

Math self-concept, grades, and achievement test scores : Long-term reciprocal effects across five waves and three achievement tracks

Arens, A. Katrin, Marsh, Herbert W., Pekrun, Reinhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Murayama, Kou and vom Hofe, Rudolf. (2017). Math self-concept, grades, and achievement test scores : Long-term reciprocal effects across five waves and three achievement tracks. Journal of Educational Psychology. 109(5), pp. 621-634. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000163

Why do children worry about their academic achievement? An expectancy-value perspective on elementary students¿ worries about their mathematics and reading performance

Lauermann, Fani, Eccles, J. S. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2017). Why do children worry about their academic achievement? An expectancy-value perspective on elementary students¿ worries about their mathematics and reading performance. ZDM: The International Journal on Mathematics Education. 49(3), pp. 339 - 354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-017-0832-1

Measuring emotions during epistemic activities: the epistemically-related emotion scales

Pekrun, Reinhard, Vogl, Elisabeth, Muis, Krista R. and Sinatra, Gale M.. (2017). Measuring emotions during epistemic activities: the epistemically-related emotion scales. Cognition and Emotion. 31(6), pp. 1268 - 1276. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2016.1204989

Long-term positive effects of repeating a year in school: Six-year longitudinal study of self-beliefs, anxiety, social relations, school grades, and test scores

Marsh, Herbert W., Parker, Philip D., Guo, Jiesi, Dicke, Theresa, Pekrun, Reinhard, Murayama, K. and Lichtenfeld, Stephanie. (2017). Long-term positive effects of repeating a year in school: Six-year longitudinal study of self-beliefs, anxiety, social relations, school grades, and test scores. Journal of Educational Psychology. 109(3), pp. 425 - 438. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000144

Exploring the relations between epistemic beliefs, emotions, and learning from texts

Trevors, Gregory J., Muis, Krista R., Pekrun, Reinhard, Sinatra, Gale M. and Muijselaar, Marloes M. L.. (2017). Exploring the relations between epistemic beliefs, emotions, and learning from texts. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 48, pp. 116 - 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.10.001

Achievement emotions and academic performance : Longitudinal models of reciprocal effects

Pekrun, Reinhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Marsh, Herbert W., Murayama, Kou and Goetz, Thomas. (2017). Achievement emotions and academic performance : Longitudinal models of reciprocal effects. Child Development. 88(5), pp. 1653-1670. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12704

Emotions that matter to achievement : Student feelings about assessment

Vogl, Elisabeth and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Emotions that matter to achievement : Student feelings about assessment. In In Brown, Gavin T. L. and Harris, Lois R. (Ed.). Handbook of human and social conditions in assessment pp. 111-128 Routledge.

To be bored or not to be bored: How task-related boredom influences creative performance

Haager, Julia S., Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). To be bored or not to be bored: How task-related boredom influences creative performance. The Journal of Creative Behavior. 52(4), pp. 297 - 304. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.154

Using self-report to assess emotions in education

Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Using self-report to assess emotions in education. In In Zembylas, Michalinos and Schutz, Paul A. (Ed.). Methodological advances in research on emotion and education pp. 43-54 Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29049-2_4

Measuring teachers' enjoyment, anger, and anxiety: The Teacher Emotions Scales (TES)

Frenzel, Anne C., Pekrun, Reinhard, Goetz, Thomas, Daniels, Lia M., Durksen, Tracy L., Becker-Kurz, Betty and Klassen, Robert M.. (2016). Measuring teachers' enjoyment, anger, and anxiety: The Teacher Emotions Scales (TES). Contemporary Educational Psychology. 46(July), pp. 148 - 163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.05.003

How do you make me feel better? Social cognitive emotion regulation and the default mode network

Xie, Xiyao, Bratec, Satja Mulej, Schmid, Gabriele, Meng, Chun, Doll, Anselm, Wohlschläger, Afra, Finke, Kathrin, Förstl, Hans, Zimmer, Claus, Pekrun, Reinhard, Schilbach, Leonhard, Riedl, Valentin and Sorg, Christian. (2016). How do you make me feel better? Social cognitive emotion regulation and the default mode network. NeuroImage. 134(July), pp. 270 - 280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.04.015

Teachers' emotions and emotion management: integrating emotion regulation theory with emotional labor research

Lee, Mikyoung, Pekrun, Reinhard, Taxer, Jamie L., Schutz, Paul A., Vogl, Elisabeth and Xie, Xiyao. (2016). Teachers' emotions and emotion management: integrating emotion regulation theory with emotional labor research. Social Psychology of Education: an international journal. 19(4), pp. 843 - 863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-016-9359-5

Identity and epistemic emotions during knowledge revision: A potential account for the backfire effect

Trevors, Gregory J., Muis, Krista R., Pekrun, Reinhard, Sinatra, Gale M. and Winne, Philip H.. (2016). Identity and epistemic emotions during knowledge revision: A potential account for the backfire effect. Discourse Processes. 53(5-6), pp. 339 - 370. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2015.1136507

Adaptive motivation and emotion in education: Research and principles for instructional design

Linnenbrink-Garcia, Lisa, Patall, Erika A. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Adaptive motivation and emotion in education: Research and principles for instructional design. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 3(2), pp. 228 - 236. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732216644450

The impact of emotions on student achievement in synchronous hybrid business and public administration programs: A longitudinal test of control-value theory

Butz, Nikolaus T., Stupnisky, Robert H., Pekrun, Reinhard, Jensen, Jason L. and Harsell, Dana M.. (2016). The impact of emotions on student achievement in synchronous hybrid business and public administration programs: A longitudinal test of control-value theory. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education. 14(4), pp. 441 - 474. https://doi.org/10.1111/dsji.12110

Intraindividual relations between achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: An experience sampling approach

Goetz, Thomas, Sticca, Fabio, Pekrun, Reinhard, Murayama, Kou and Elliot, Andrew J.. (2016). Intraindividual relations between achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: An experience sampling approach. Learning and Instruction. 41, pp. 115 - 125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.10.007

Breaking the double-edged sword of effort/trying hard : Developmental equilibrium and longitudinal relations among effort, achievement, and academic self-concept

Marsh, Herbert W., Pekrun, Reinhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Guo, Jisei, Arens, A. Katrin and Murayama, Kou. (2016). Breaking the double-edged sword of effort/trying hard : Developmental equilibrium and longitudinal relations among effort, achievement, and academic self-concept. Developmental Psychology. 52(8), pp. 1273-1290. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000146

New faculty members' emotions: A mixed-method study

Stupnisky, Robert H., Pekrun, Reinhard and Lichtenfeld, Stephanie. (2016). New faculty members' emotions: A mixed-method study. Studies in Higher Education. 41(7), pp. 1167 - 1188. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.968546

Emotions that matter to achievement: Student feelings about assessment

Vogl, Elisabeth and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Emotions that matter to achievement: Student feelings about assessment. In In G.T.L. Brown and L. R. Harris (Ed.). Handbook of human and social conditions in assessment pp. 111 - 128 Routledge.

Don't aim too high for your kids : Parental overaspiration undermines students' learning in mathematics

Murayama, Kou, Pekrun, Reinhard, Suzuki, Masayuki, Marsh, Herbert W. and Lichtenfeld, Stephanie. (2016). Don't aim too high for your kids : Parental overaspiration undermines students' learning in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 111(5), pp. 766-779. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000079

Academic emotions

Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Academic emotions. In Handbook of motivation at school pp. 120-144 Routledge.

The paradoxical role of perceived control in late life health behavior

Chipperfield, Judith G., Perry, Raymond P., Pekrun, Reinhard, Barchfeld, Petra, Lang, Frieder R. and Hamm, Jeremy M.. (2016). The paradoxical role of perceived control in late life health behavior. PLoS ONE. 11(3), pp. 1 - 16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148921

Affect influences feature binding in memory: Trading between richness and strength of memory representations

Spachtholz, Philipp, Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2016). Affect influences feature binding in memory: Trading between richness and strength of memory representations. Emotion. 16(7), pp. 1067 - 1073. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000199

Students' emotions for achievement and technology use in synchronous hybrid graduate programmes: A control-value approach

Butz, Nikolaus T., Stupnisky, Robert H. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2015). Students' emotions for achievement and technology use in synchronous hybrid graduate programmes: A control-value approach. Research in Learning Technology. 23(1), pp. 1 - 16. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v23.26097

The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire : Validation for pre-adolescent students

Peixoto, Francisco, Mata, Lourdes, Monteiro, Vera, Sanches, Cristina and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2015). The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire : Validation for pre-adolescent students. European Journal of Developmental Psychology. 12(4), pp. 472 - 481. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2015.1040757

Teaching this class drives me nuts! - Examining the person and context specificity of teacher emotions

Frenzel, Anne C., Becker-Kurz, Betty, Pekrun, Reinhard and Goetz, Thomas. (2015). Teaching this class drives me nuts! - Examining the person and context specificity of teacher emotions. PLoS ONE. 10(6), pp. 1 - 15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129630

Differential binding of colors to objects in memory: Red and yellow stick better than blue and green

Kuhbandner, Christof, Spitzer, Bernhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2015). Differential binding of colors to objects in memory: Red and yellow stick better than blue and green. Frontiers in Psychology. 6(231), pp. 1 - 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00231

The curious case of climate change: Testing a theoretical model of epistemic beliefs, epistemic emotions, and complex learning

Muis, Krista R., Pekrun, Reinhard, Sinatra, Gale M., Azevedo, Roger, Trevors, Gregory, Meier, Elisabeth and Heddy, Benjamin C.. (2015). The curious case of climate change: Testing a theoretical model of epistemic beliefs, epistemic emotions, and complex learning. Learning and Instruction. 39, pp. 168 - 183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.06.003

Internal/external frame of reference model

Marsh, Herbert W., Möller, Jens, Parker, Philip, Xu, Man K., Nagengast, Benjamin and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2015). Internal/external frame of reference model. In In J. D. Wright (Ed.). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences pp. 425 - 432 Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.26084-4

Confusion can be beneficial for learning

D'Mello, Sidney, Lehman, Blair, Pekrun, Reinhard and Graesser, Art. (2014). Confusion can be beneficial for learning. Learning and Instruction. 29, pp. 153 - 170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.05.003

Attribution-based treatment interventions in some achievement settings

Perry, Raymond P., Chipperfield, Judith G., Hladkyj, Steve, Pekrun, Reinhard and Hamm, Jeremy M.. (2014). Attribution-based treatment interventions in some achievement settings. Advances in Motivation and Achievement. 18, pp. 1 - 35. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0749-742320140000018000

Negative affect improves the quality of memories: Trading capacity for precision in sensory and working memory

Spachtholz, Philipp, Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2014). Negative affect improves the quality of memories: Trading capacity for precision in sensory and working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 143(4), pp. 1450 - 1456. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000012

Using control-value theory to understand achievement emotions in medical education

Artino, Anthony R. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2014). Using control-value theory to understand achievement emotions in medical education. Academic Medicine. 89(12), pp. 1696 - 1696. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000536

Overcoming fixed mindsets: The role of affect

Haager, Julia S., Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2014). Overcoming fixed mindsets: The role of affect. Cognition and Emotion. 28(4), pp. 756 - 767. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.851645

Types of boredom: An experience sampling approach

Goetz, Thomas, Frenzel, Anne C., Hall, Nathan C., Nett, Ulrike E., Pekrun, Reinhard and Lipnevich, Anastasiya A.. (2014). Types of boredom: An experience sampling approach. Motivation and Emotion. 38(3), pp. 401 - 419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-013-9385-y

Memory suppression can help people "unlearn" behavioral responses-but only for nonemotional memories

Sakaki, Michiko, Kuhbandner, Christof, Mather, Mara and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2014). Memory suppression can help people "unlearn" behavioral responses-but only for nonemotional memories. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review. 21(1), pp. 136 - 141. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0480-6

The power of anticipated feedback: Effects on students' achievement goals and achievement emotions

Pekrun, Reinhard, Cusack, Aisling, Murayama, Kou, Elliot, Andrew J. and Thomas, Kevin. (2014). The power of anticipated feedback: Effects on students' achievement goals and achievement emotions. Learning and Instruction. 29(February), pp. 115 - 124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.002

Boredom and academic achievement: Testing a model of reciprocal causation

Pekrun, Reinhard, Hall, Nathan C., Goetz, Thomas and Perry, Raymond P.. (2014). Boredom and academic achievement: Testing a model of reciprocal causation. Journal of Educational Psychology. 106(3), pp. 696 - 710. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036006

The influence of red on impression formation in a job application context

Maier, Markus A., Elliot, Andrew J., Lee, Borah, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Barchfeld, Petra and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2013). The influence of red on impression formation in a job application context. Motivation and Emotion. 37(3), pp. 389 - 401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9326-1

Predicting long-term growth in students' mathematics achievement: The unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies

Murayama, Kou, Pekrun, Reinhard, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie and vom Hofe, Rudolf. (2013). Predicting long-term growth in students' mathematics achievement: The unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies. Child Development. 84(4), pp. 1475 - 1490. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12036

Do girls really experience more anxiety in mathematics?

Goetz, Thomas, Bieg, Madeleine, Ludtke, Oliver, Pekrun, Reinhard and Hall, Nathan C.. (2013). Do girls really experience more anxiety in mathematics? Psychological Science. 24(10), pp. 2079 - 2087. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613486989

Affective state influences retrieval-induced forgetting for integrated knowledge

Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2013). Affective state influences retrieval-induced forgetting for integrated knowledge. PLoS ONE. 8(2), pp. 1 - 6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056617

Joint effects of emotion and color on memory

Kuhbandner, Christof and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2013). Joint effects of emotion and color on memory. Emotion. 13(3), pp. 375 - 379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031821

Teaching methods for modelling problems and students' task-specific enjoyment, value, interest and self-efficacy expectations

Schukajlow, Stanislaw, Leiss, Dominik, Pekrun, Reinhard, Blum, Werner, Muller, Marcel and Messner, Rudolf. (2012). Teaching methods for modelling problems and students' task-specific enjoyment, value, interest and self-efficacy expectations. Educational Studies in Mathematics. 79(2), pp. 215 - 237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-011-9341-2

Beyond quantitative decline: Conceptual shifts in adolescents' development of interest in mathematics

Frenzel, Anne C., Pekrun, Reinhard, Dicke, Anna-Lena and Goetz, Thomas. (2012). Beyond quantitative decline: Conceptual shifts in adolescents' development of interest in mathematics. Developmental Psychology. 48(4), pp. 1069 - 1082. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026895

Students' emotions during homework: Structures, self-concept antecedents, and achievement outcomes

Goetz, Thomas, Nett, Ulrike E., Martiny, Sarah E., Hall, Nathan C., Pekrun, Reinhard, Dettmers, Swantje and Trautwein, Ulrich. (2012). Students' emotions during homework: Structures, self-concept antecedents, and achievement outcomes. Learning and Individual Differences. 22(2), pp. 225 - 234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.04.006

Measuring students' emotions in the early years: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire-Elementary School (AEQ-ES)

Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Pekrun, Reinhard, Stupnisky, Robert H., Reiss, Kristina and Murayama, Kou. (2012). Measuring students' emotions in the early years: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire-Elementary School (AEQ-ES). Learning and Individual Differences. 22(2), pp. 190 - 201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.04.009

Fertile green: Green facilitates creative performance

Lichtenfeld, Stephanie, Elliot, Andrew J., Maier, Markus A. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2012). Fertile green: Green facilitates creative performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 38(6), pp. 784 - 797. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212436611

Measuring emotions in students' learning and performance: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ)

Pekrun, Reinhard, Goetz, Thomas, Frenzel, Anne C., Barchfeld, Petra and Perry, Raymond P.. (2011). Measuring emotions in students' learning and performance: The Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ). Contemporary Educational Psychology. 36(1), pp. 36 - 48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.002

Read-out of emotional information from iconic memory: The longevity of threatening stimuli

Kuhbandner, Christof, Spitzer, Bernhard and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Read-out of emotional information from iconic memory: The longevity of threatening stimuli. Psychological Science. 22(5), pp. 695 - 700. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611406445

Students' emotions and academic engagement: Introduction to the special issue

Linnenbrink-Garcia, Lisa and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Students' emotions and academic engagement: Introduction to the special issue. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 36(1), pp. 1 - 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.11.004

Students' emotions during homework in mathematics: Testing a theoretical model of antecedents and achievement outcomes

Dettmers, Swantje, Trautwein, Ulrich, Ludtke, Oliver, Goetz, Thomas, Frenzel, Anne C. and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Students' emotions during homework in mathematics: Testing a theoretical model of antecedents and achievement outcomes. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 36(1), pp. 25 - 35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.001

A 3 × 2 achievement goal model

Elliot, Andrew J., Murayama, Kou and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). A 3 × 2 achievement goal model. Journal of Educational Psychology. 103(3), pp. 632 - 648. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023952

Teacher enthusiasm: Dimensionality and context specificity

Kunter, Marieke, Frenzel, Anne C., Nagy, Gabriel, Baumert, Jurgen and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Teacher enthusiasm: Dimensionality and context specificity. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 36(4), pp. 289 - 301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.07.001

Always look on the broad side of life: Happiness increases the breadth of sensory memory

Kuhbandner, Christof, Lichtenfeld, Stephanie and Pekrun, Reinhard. (2011). Always look on the broad side of life: Happiness increases the breadth of sensory memory. Emotion. 11(4), pp. 958 - 964. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024075